*** Please help with the Big Catch Up! ***

From Never Again

THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN RWANDAN GENOCIDE ___________________________________________________

I. The General introduction

Like several other Genocides the World has witnessed, Rwandan Genocide was not a sudden disaster. It was prepared and planned for decades dating from colonial era until the post independence epoch. It evolved through 8 stages of Genocide by G. Huston. Its eventual perpetuation was in 1994 when over one million Rwandans specifically Tutsi and moderate Hutus were heinously killed in just one hundred days.

Causes of this Genocide have been exhaustively brought to limelight notably among others has been the indispensable role of the Media. Most of the scholars if not all , strenuously involved in analysing the role of Media in Rwandan Genocide have dated their researches from Independence period up to 1994 episodes . Little if not ‘nothing’ is known about the enough material that had been prepared by the Media during the colonial periods waiting for combustion, come 1994 Genocide. Therefore, this work deems it imperative to examine the role of Media from the onset to its climax in 1994 Genocide.

II. The General Historical background Rwandan Media from 1933-1994. The Rwandan media industry begun with the creation of Kinyamateka, the first Rwanda’s Newspaper owned by the Catholic Church. Created in Sept. 1933, Kinyamateka under the management of Catholic Church influenced, accelerated and supported the infamous1959 ‘Social revolution’ which left hundreds of thousands of Tutsis tortured and fled to neighbouring countries.

As a Catholic Church Newspaper ought to maintain moral standards and uphold Journalistic integrity and principles owing to its professional Journalists like Sylvio SINDAMBIWE from Ecole de Journalisme de Lille among others, surprisingly, spearheaded and incited Masses to kill others.  

In 1960s the Catholic owned Newspaper enjoyed the government’s support besides Radio Rwanda. The Bi-monthly, “ Dialogue’ as the sister paper to Kinyamateka was created in 1967 under the auspice of Catholic Church . “ Both Kinyamateka and Dialogue were protected from Government harassment because they belonged to the church. Generally, after independence, both papers had to be moderate in their critics of the government or its treatments of the Tutsi. Three Kinyamateka -journalists and editors who were too bold were jailed, had to flee, or were threatened.” (International Media Support .Report. March 2003) Also the role of Kangura as one of the Hate Media needs scrutiny. Directed by Ngeze Hassan , Kangura played a key role in fostering and castigating Ideology of Genocide. It was created in 1990 and it is known to have published Ten Hutu Commandments which was a practical incitements against Tutsi .One of the commandments read in part “ any Hutu must know that a Tutsi woman , wherever she is works for her Tutsi ethnic group. Therefore is a traitor any Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman or who has a Tutsi concubine or who hires a Tutsi secretary or protects a Tutsi woman is also regarded as a traitor .” (International Media Support . Report. March 2003 ) Alongside Kangura publication, other Newspapers played decisive roles in the Genocide. They fuelled deadly confrontations between Hutus and Tutsis “……UMURANGA directed by Félicien SEMUSAMBI , UMURANGI directed by Boniface NTAWUYIRUSHINTEGE, UMURWANASHYAKA directed by Gaspard GAHIGI , ECHO des Mille Collines directed by KABONABAKE , La Médaille Nyiramacibiri directed by RWABUTOGO François , KAMARAMPAKA directed by HATEGEKIMANA Bernard alias MUKINGO, IBYIKI GIHE, PAWA, INTERA, INTERAHAMWE , LE COURRIER DU PEUPLE” Inquiry report on Human rights massive violations committed in Rwanda since 6th April .1994. Published on 10th December 1994 by CLADHO- KANYARWANDA Radio Rwanda created in 1960 by Colonial administration to serve the interests of Europeans was also engaged in the Genocide drama. It was created with the overriding goal of keeping a close link between metropolitans and those who lived in Rwanda and Burundi respectively . In 1961 radio Rwanda spilt into radio Usumbura and radio Kigali which later became Radio Rwanda. In 1963, following the first tentative return of “Inyenzi” , the disgruntled Tutsi who had fled to Burundi due to social injustice , political unrests , Radio Rwanda staged a clear hatred against Tutsi community within and outside Rwanda . This climaxed the stigmatisation and all sorts of stereotypes branded on Tutsi . It is pertinent to note that , leadership through radio harnessed divisionism that had been put in place by colonial administration and Catholic Church . It is worthwhile to note that President Gregoire Kayibanda used Radio to justify for the deaths of Tutsis in 1959, 1963 ,1973. There was a recurring media campaign aimed at massacring Tutsis. Consequently, there were steadily movements of refuges from Rwanda to neighbouring countries. The epoch between 1990 and 1994 saw the similar unprecedented hatred propaganda against the rebel group code-named “Inkontanyi”, portrayed as illegitimate returnees who deserved no welcome since the country was “full like a glass of water” .

“ In 1990, RADIO  RWANDA programmes served to provoke and justify massacres of Tutsis in MUTARA ,KIBIRIRA ,NASHO, and BUGESERA as well as detention of more than 10.000 people .

In 1991 RADIO RWANDA was used to prepare Tutsi Genocide under the direction of Ferdinand NAHIMANA and Augustin HATARI .This radio was in the hands of the extremists of MRND and CDR and it was directly controlled by the President’s office.” Inquiry report on Human rights massive violations committed in Rwanda since 6th April .1994. Published on 10th December 1994 by CLADHO- KANYARWANDA President Habyarimana using the same medium denied refugees the right to be nationals. Instead, he suggested them to seek indefinite nationality in the countries they stayed. Instead of transmitting balanced information, the post Independence radio Rwanda played an instrumental role of glorifying head of state and his clique notably known as Akazu. It’s to this end that Radio was ostensibly seen by successive Rwandan leaders as indispensable tool for propagation and inculcation of the ideology of Genocide. Radio-Television de Mille Colline created in April 1993. In July and it broadcast throughout the country and some parts of Burundi. Working closely with Kangura ,the two media organs became notorious for awakening atrocious emotions via its broad light programmes . On 13th May 1994 as the signs of a pending Genocide were evident , HABIMANA Kantano , the ERTM’s Journalist passed a message calling for the extermination of Tutsi , “Nous les combattrons et nous vaincrons cela est plus qu’une certitude , tout doute est impossible et s’il ne font pas attention , ils seront exterminé , parque moi je les ai vu …………… …..La famillie en voie d’extinction au Rwanda , C’est donc la quelle …….. ? » loosely translated as « We shall fight them and we shall win them this is certain , no doubt , if they don’t be attentive ,they will be exterminated because me I saw them …….The family in the process of extinction in Rwanda , which one is that…….?” Jean Pierre Chréten , Les Médias du Genocide,Karthala, 1995 ETLM’s impeccable role in diffusion of genocide message can also be reflected in the Simon Bikindi’s songs and drama that mobilised , sensitised Hutus to wipe out Tutsi not even sparing the foetus . Simon Bikindi in collaboration with Habimana Kantano praised the victory of the army at the battle fields as well as death squads popularly known as Interahamwe Analysts have argued that if ETLM had not mobilised, directed, sensitised Hutus on mechanics of killings Tutsis and other heinous tactics to use against Tutsi , the Genocide would have not taken the magnitude it took in just one hundred days Other observers of the trend of the Genocide right from early 1960s have argued that Rwandan Genocide had been prepared quite some time before even the projects for the creation of ERTLM had been put on papers. The same Genocide observers say that the Media just played its role of conveying already prepared “message” to its intended audiences by leaders. It would be false generalisation to say that all Rwandan Media played a paramount role of propagating the message of extermination because there are those ones that stood against Genocide ideology for example Kanguka and others. What is undeniable however is the role of some Media organs such Radio Rwanda , ETLM Kangura , ECHO des Mille Collines, INTERAHAMWE in inculcating the spirit of hatred amongst people .These Media organs put much fuel in already burning fire .

For details about historical background of Media in relation to the propaganda of hate , look at The role of Media in 1959, 1963, 1973,1990,1992,1994 Periods of civil unrests which subsequently led to Genocide.

II.I. Comparative study: Rwanda-Belgium Media from colonisation to independence

Rwanda as a Belgian’s colony partly or wholly depended on Belgium for its, cultural and political dimensions . Therefore, Belgium Media in one way or the other amplified Rwandan ethnic stereotypes. It is on this background that, it would be like putting a cart before a horse to examine the role of Rwandan Media without integrating European Media, Belgium publications in particular.

As a matter of fact, Rwandans and Africans in general were taught to be submissive and subservient right from the days of the coming of European colonialists. It was therefore easy for inculcating and imparting stereotypes in Rwandans.

In Africa, Rwanda inclusive, assimilation policy was entrenched deep in Africa’s thinking. Who would not accept what colonial masters would have written or said? Africans swallowed whatever they could be given without assessing the impacts that would come thereafter. Africa’s fashion , thinking , styles  and identity even destiny was designated and determined by their Colonial masters. Here is a direct indication of how colonial masters perceived Black Africans.
« Les Noirs sont, de nature, paresseux et lents, tout en étant capables de travailler rapidement. […] Ce sont de véritables gosses et qu’ils aient des ou enfants ou non, nous ne saurions agir avec eux que comme des enfants. » 

THIBAUT (J) Sous l’ombre des volcans africains , Bruxelles , 1953, pp.50. Translated as “ The blacks are naturally lazy ,slow even though they are capable of working rapidly .(…...)They are real kids since themselves have kids or not , we shall have to work with them as kids”, THIBAUT (J) Sous l’ombre des volcans africains , Bruxelles , 1953, pp. 50.

« Les Noirs de notre Congo [et par conséquent ceux du Ruanda-Urundi] – qui est Belge – sont nos enfants, pas nos frères…Comme des enfants, nous devons les élever moralement et matériellement, afin qu’un jour, ils soient capables de se lancer dans la vie comme des hommes. Ce jour-là, ils seront nos frères. »
J THIEBAUT (J) Sous l’ombre des volcans africains , Bruxelles , 1953,pp 106-107.

Translated as “The Back of our Congo as well as those of Ruanda- Urundi)-who are Belgians’ Kids not our brothers ………As kids , we must morally and materially bring them up so that in the future they would be capable of helping themselves in life as other humans. That very day, that is when they will merit to be our brothers. » ” J THIEBAUT (J) Sous l’ombre des volcans africains , Bruxelles , 1953,pp 106-107.

This is the rational behind the internalization of some baseless stereotypes in Rwanda. Examples such as serfs (Hutus) and feudal (Tutsi), origin of Tutsis, Twa as authentic owners of Rwandan land speak volumes for themselves.

What is interesting however, is how other version about the origins of Twa by self-proclaimed “designers” of African history(Colonialists) is that Twa are perceived as “Rwandan-Aborigines”! .

In Rwanda , these stereotypes exported from Europe duel on a fertile land . If it was not upon amplification of these stereotypes through Belgium Press , Rwandans would have felt one in their common ancestral god called Gihanga.

In a more illustrated way, the citation by Jean Pierre Chrétien ,(1981), “Les civilizations de l’ Afrique sont les civilisations des Hamites …..Les invahissieurs hamites étaient hamites des Caucaisaides Pastoraux ,arrivés vague après vague, mieux aramés et d’esprit plus vif que les agriculteurs négres à peau somble »

Loosely translated as « The civilisations of Africa is the civilizations of Hamites ……..The invading hamites were from Caucasus , pastoralists  , arrived wave after wave , well armed with more  vivid spirit  than the dark skinned agriculturalists (Hutus).”

For a thorough understanding of the influence of the Begian Press on Rwandan perceptions, we shall consider some the titles from Belgian Publications published as early as 1960s - La Libre Belgique  : 20.01.1964, loosely translated from French “ Tribal revolts. Five to Six Thousand Tutsis Massacred by Hutus”. - Le Voix de Peuple : 31.01.1964 “ Belgian Military Officers are responsable for the Tutsi Genocide Based on racism » - Le Soir : 2 .02 .1964 ; « Declarations of Anglican Missionaries in Rwanda : The Bahutu continue to exterminate the Watutsi” - La Libre Belgique : 25.02 .1964 Kigali Government continues anti-Tutsi crusade. More than Six thousand of them fled to Uganda”

From the above Belgian Press reports not including the abundant similar reports in other European Press reports , one can easily tell the genesis of stereotypes in Rwandan Media organs such as Kangura , ERTLM , Radio Rwanda etcetera.

What is worth noting from the above Belgian Press reports is Rwandan Press emulated its ethnic reportages from European reports. To limit our study, we focused on Belgian Press. This does not mean that facts about the role of European Press in formulation and shaping of Rwandan Press stop(s) here. From experience and experiment based on this research , there are plentiful facts showing how Rwandan Press emulated the above underlined stereotypes from Belgian Press reports . It is our hope that many more other researchers would examine the influence and interactions the European Press as a whole had on Rwandan Press. For insights about inculcation of stereotypes into Rwanda’s socio-Political structures, via media houses , look at chapter 111.

Quite related to the above, it is important to analyse how Rwandan Media played a significant horrible role in the civil unrests that subsequently led to 1994 Genocide.

II.2. The role of Media in 1959, 1963, 1973,1990,1992,1994 Periods of civil unrests and Genocide

Many Researchers involved in writing on the role of Media linking it with ethnic upheavals, as well as Genocide, either deliberately or due to little information concentrate their researches on the period between 1990’-1994 . This is the period when RTLM, KANGURA and Radio Rwanda were really active, propagating hatred campaigns.

Our viewpoint is not to accuse these researchers for oversimplifying Rwandan catastrophe. Ours is to vividly show the genesis of Ideology of Genocide, produced by colonialists and the Catholic Church. It is abundantly clear that Media was used as tools to spread Genocide ideas in the Rwandan society as early as 1960’s. It is intriguing to observe a clear similarity of Rwandan Media discourse during the Political unrests and their methods of fuelling the hatred discourse over a period of 34 years (1959-1994).

For a better understanding, we need to understand the correlation between Media and the political leadership in place since 1959 up to 1994.

As scholars of Journalism believe, Media acts as a mirror to reflect the socio-political environment.

To this end, hate Media can only thrive when there is hate power. Therefore, it not surprising to see Media failing to extricate itself in hate power owing to what leaders such as Jean-Paul HARROY, the last Belgian General Governor of Ruanda-Urundi,( 1955-1962)

,Grégoire Kayibanda (1961-1973)  and  Juvenal Habyarimana (1973-1994)

For a better illustration on the linkage, influence and interactions between political leadership discourse and that of Media, one ought to recall how Jean-Paul HARROY described the social revolution in his book titled “Rwanda. De la féodalité à la démocratie :1955-1962, Bruxelles, 1984.

«  … Des excès furent évidemment commis par les Hutu incendiaires, les uns se laissant tenter par le pillage, les autres par l’assouvissement de vengeances personnelles. Il y eut des meurtres, probablement des tortures, des bananeraies coupées, du bétail tué et laissé sur place, des récoltes saccagées. Ailleurs, une opération de mise à feu de huttes vit le propriétaire et ses amis tenter une résistance, ce qui déclencha des combats où les agresseurs, devenus plus furieux encore, détruisirent et tuèrent gratuitement. Et il y eut aussi des cas d’excitation de masses par quelques meneurs, conduisant par exemple, des bandes armées (stimulées par l’alcool, voire des drogues) vers des missions où de lamentables cortèges de réfugiés tutsi avaient cherché refuge. Des cas de ce genre ne furent, hélas, pas rares. Dans le Courrier d’Afrique du 17 novembre 1959 on lit, par exemple : «  Deux infirmières anglaises ont sauvé la vie à 300 Batutsi ». Et de décrire le courage de Miss Joséphine Stancliffe et de Miss Doreen Perk, de la Church Missionnary Society qui refusèrent de livrer à des Hutu déchaînés les Tutsi réfugiés chez elles, et qui assistèrent à un combat, dont l’une soigna sur place les blessés tandis que l’autre parvenait en jeep à aller chercher la F.P. [Force Publique] qui mit fin à l’agression. » Translated as “…Excessive violence was committed by fire-starting Hutu, some committed pillage , others committed personal vengeances. There were some massacres, probably tortures, banana plantations were cut down, herds of cattle slaughtered, their carcass left lying on the ground, harvests destroyed . Elsewhere, grass-hatched houses burnt down as the owner and his friend resisted .This resistance provoked fights and aggressors become so furious. Destruction and massacres continued out of no genuine reason . Aggressors continually encouraged by their leaders to attack the victims. The armed gangs under the influence of alcohol and drugs went to the missionary residence where lamentable refugee group had marched for sanctuary. Unfortunately, such similar cases happened quite often. In the Courrier d’Afrique of 17th November 1959 one reads for example: “Two English nurses managed to save lives of 300 Batutsi”. The paper describes the courage of Miss Josephine Stancliffe and Miss Doreen Perk of Church Missionary Society who refused to give the Tutsi who had sought refugee in their residence to seemingly mad Hutu mobs. The two nurses eye witnessed the fighting. One of them took care of the wounded ones while the other took her jeep for F.P[Force Publique]which put the aggression to the end.” The above description of the massacres of 1959 by Jean-Paul HARROY reads like a media article describing similar massacres of 1994 Genocide . Ironically however, Jean Paul HARROYS was the sole causer of the unfortunate massacres though by his description he tried to extricate himself from the fate of Tutsis Another important thing to note is that there is no where in Jean Paul HAROYS’ description where he regarded what was happening to Tutsis by that time as ‘Genocide’. From this, the Media danced according to the tunes of the political leadership. One wonders if both political leaders and the Media had connived to hide the true nature of the massacres yet there were the undisputable manifestations of Genocide at the ground . III. Stereotypes in Rwandan and International Media about the Genocide Stereotypes in Rwanda have been the common place. Notable ones among others are the origin of Rwandans, the cultural and physical differences amongst Rwandans. It has been reportedly written that Tutsi originated from Abyssinia whereas Hutus originated from Congo as a Bantu group. Twa have been regarded as authentic Rwandan with incontestable rights over land. Paradoxically, these three groups have been also described basing on their livelihoods and occupations. Tutsis being pastoralists, Hutus agriculturalists and Twa hunters and potters. Another distinctive feature built on baseless ethnic cleavages was psychological and physical characteristics. Tutsi described as intelligent, cunning, skilled, tall and born to lead. Hutus were short, stout, with big chests and ‘born to be led’. Twa have been described as entertainers, members of the army, passive and filthy. These stereotypes fashioned superior versus the inferior mentalities in Rwandans. They were contributed to social stratification hence Rwandans lost the social cohesions than unified them since time immemorial . Instead of standing together, they divided themselves along the ethnic lines. For a thorough grasp of the magnitude of stereotypes by colonialists, Mgr Classe’s (the first Bishop of Rwanda) words speak volumes:

“ Le plus grand tort que le gouvernement [belge] pourrait se faire à lui-même et au pays serait de supprimer la caste mututsi. Une révolution de genre conduira le pays tout droit à l’anarchie et au communisme haineusement anti-européen. Loin de promouvoir le progrès, elle annihilera l’action du gouvernement, le privant d’auxiliaires capables de le comprendre et de le suivre. C’est la pensée et l’intime conviction de tous les supérieurs de missions au Rwanda sans exception… »

Cité par LACGER (L.de), Le Ruanda ancien et moderne, Kabgayi, 1959, pp.524. Tentatively translated as “ The worst mistake Belgian Government would do to itself and to the country would be to abolish Tutsi . A revolution would erupt leading the whole country in anarchy and Communism based on anti-European hatred. This state of affair would hinder progress and annihilate government actions, wipe out supplementary and knowledgeable work force capable of following instructions . This is the idea and the intimate conviction of major missions in Rwanda without exception …” «  Mais les essais de gouvernement par les roturiers ne donnèrent pas en général de très heureux résultats. Les Bahutu, promus aux chefferies, manquaient de prestige et d’autorité. Ils faisaient piètre figure en présence de grands seigneurs qu’ils paraissent supplanter. Ils n’arrivaient pas à acquérir l’ascendant fascinateur que les humbles, instinctivement traditionalistes, subissent, sans défense en présence d’une supériorité héréditaire de situation, de type physique, de stature, de façon, de fortune. Là n’était pas la solution de l’avancement rapide des natifs dans la voie du progrès » Cité par LACGER (L.de), Le Ruanda ancien et moderne, Kabgayi, 1959, 522-523. Also loosely as « But the trial of Government to elevate Hutu in general will not yield any good results . The Bahutu , to be promoted to chiefs, lack prestige and authority. They will appear insignificant figures in the presence of grand lords seemingly superseding them . They will never have the quality of being superior and seductive which humble people, to instinctively sustain suffering without defence in the presence of superiors by heritage of situations based on physical features , height , behaviour , and fortune. This was not a solution for rapid advancement of natives in development process”

One would not wonder if he compares Rwandan stereotypes with Darwin theory, defining human species in terms of hierarchies. His thoughts led to appalling divide between the superior race and inferior race . they were expanded by Gobineau, a French anthropologist, throughout his literature. Nazism has been said to have had its roots from the same racist theory developed in 19th century in Europe before it had spread to Africa and to Rwanda in particular. Still, international media exacerbated the situation as it either described Rwandans according to the above stated stereotypes. Logically, the international Media perceived Rwandans as they had been presented by Missionary groups and colonialists who had internalised Darwin’s theory. Although these had been taught by Missionaries and colonialists as mechanics that would facilitate divide and rule policy , these stereotypes were persistently used in international Media. The above theories coupled with international media reports were attributable to Rwanda civil unrests , traditional hatred. As a matter of fact, most foreigners do not understand why, during the 1994 Genocide, the corpses of the slain people were thrown into Nyabarongo river which flows into River Akagera, the southern name of River Nile. Tutsis were thus to be sent back to Ethiopia or Egypt . Actually, Ideology of Genocide existed long time before the latest time of the eruption of the massive massacres and 1994 Genocide. Throughout colonial and missionary literature which were used by the Media, Tutsi were portrayed as foreigners . They were presented as “invaders” and their efforts to come back from exile from Burundi in 1963 or from Uganda in 1990 were described as a mere invasion. The unalienable rights of Rwandan Tutsi to return home had never granted by Hutu dominated governments since 1959. Moreover, the “social revolution” of 1959 was described by international Media as a war between “Slaves against lords”.

Therefore, Media presented the massacres of that period as not as crimes but as acts inspired by a liberation movement. Who would not support a liberation movement?

In this regard , it would be particularly interesting to work on Media archives in Brussels of those Media which contributed to structure the minds of Rwandans and to distort international perceptions and Rwanda traditional social structure . IV: Interaction between Media and Political leadership The interactions of National Media and international Media were observable in the years before the Genocide. International Newspapers relied on what used to be published by Rwandan hate media for instance Kangura, RTLM reports. . Likewise, National Media proved to its audience (Rwandans) the authenticity of the hate propaganda taking international Media as cases of references There are ample publications allegedly accusing Media fuelled Genocide in Rwanda. In essence, Media alone would not set the whole Rwandan society to a blaze; other components of the society hold the responsibility. Examples of these components included: civil society, Political parties, political institutions like parliament, religious organizations, governments etcetera. In other terms Media depends on the prevailing socio-political environment, after all, Journalists report, they do not make policies. In brief, Media transmits what has been said in various political speeches. Therefore, there is a strong interaction between National policies and Media. Poor political structures can not build strong moral structures of the society, Media was not an exception. For purpose of clarity, the horrors of Rwandan Genocide have been blamed on poor leadership, irresponsible and inactive civil society, acceptance and internalization of catastrophe on the side victims.

Absolutely, Media bears the responsibility but not the sole cause of the Rwandan Genocide. Enough material for the destruction of the country had been prepared. The victims had been dehumanised, stigmatised, denied their natural rights, prepared to accept the death fate. 

Last but never to be the least, owing to the above, the outstanding challenge is to empower socio-Political actors . Custodians of human rights need to play a leading role of advocating for the institutionalization of rule of law, fight against the ideology of Genocide, ensuring freedom of expression and participatory decision making from bottom- up strategy. Importantly, creating Media for Peace as a formidable tool for ensuring positive values throughout the Rwandan society.

V. Major Media failures Rwanda was left in the hands of the devil in the early springs of April 1994. International community, major powers, the Church and United Nation failed Rwanda. Amidst all these failures, a rational mind pauses to ask what was the role of the Media to stop or call for the prevention or punishment of crimes of Genocide? As enshrined in September 1948 Geneva Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the crime of Genocide, all components of the society ought to prevent and fight ideology of Genocide, the foundation on which NEVER AGAIN was built. In this respect, Rwandan Media and international Media failed to pass a warning bell about the manifestations of Genocide right from 1959, 1964, 1973, 1992 and 1994 acts of Genocide in Rwanda. Unfortunately, National and international media which could have yelled for action, went on rampage to distort realities in Rwanda. They misguided the world by reporting that what were happening, 1994 Genocide in particular as ‘mere’ ethnic and counter ethnic clashes. As a matter of fact, International Media in conjunction with National Media failed to understand the nature of Rwandan massacres.

Consequently, they failed to call Rwandan Genocide by its  proper name . They were referred to as mere clashes and counter clashes; war between Tutsis and Hutus. Media underestimated and misinterpreted what was happening in Rwanda. 

The failure of Media to Prevent Genocides in the World, Rwanda in particular is incontestable. However, why there has been reoccurrences of Genocides after the promulgation of 1948 Geneva Convention? The obvious answer is the sheer ignorance of the legal definition of Genocide as stated in the convention. Another pertinent response to the above question is inexistence of a treaty body mandated with observatory powers to educate, identify signs of Genocides though out the World . This treaty body should campaign, promote and educate the people about the bindings of the convention. Surprisingly, out of ten UN major international conventions, only Geneva Convention on the Punishment and prevention of Genocide is the only one without the binding treaty body. However, rays of hope stand ahead as the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan acknowledged starting this body in 2004 . Another way on how the Media disappointed Rwanda was the failure to denounce the culture of impunity through Media debates which would have been one way of preventing Genocide. Thirdly, Rwandan Media never understood the inalienable rights of refugees and accurately describe them to the general Public Lastly, the total failure to comply with basic ethics and Media regulatory laws since 1959-1994. The absence of Journalistic values particularly when addressing ethnic issues With Media regulatory bodies, codes of ethics, the hate Media for instance Kangura and RTLM would not have lived to broadcast messages aimed at exterminating Tutsis.

VI: ARUSHA Media Trial Media contributed to Rwandan Genocide by guiding killers , propagating and spreading the ideology of Genocide and amplifying hatred. Inexorably, there was need for arresting those bearing the responsibility of using the Media to exterminate Tutsis and moderate Hutus, ARRUSHA Media trial . The arrest and judgement of Ngeze Hassan , the former editor of Kangura , Ferdinand Nahimana , Managing Director of RTLM and Giorgio RUJJIU,a Belgian who work as a Journalist with ETLM for accomplice in Rwandan Genocide was a laudable landmark in Media history not only in Rwanda but in whole World. Another important aspect is the in-depth analysis of hate Media discourse, on how it operated in 1994 Genocide. The Arusha Media trial is recommended for Journalism training Programs, civil societies , Military groups and youths associations in Rwanda and other countries in Africa. These training programs will help to show the functions of Media discourses, the relations of Media and law and the responsibility of Media in Promotion of human values.

VII: Media and Genocide Ideology today? Media is a double edged sword. As it is a basic tool for national reconstruction, irresponsible Media can lead a society into total ruination, ‘Rwandan Media of hate’. In the past Media played a substantial role of propagating the ideology of Genocide. Balance, objectivity, minimizing harm and advocating for social harmony are the benchmarks for Public Journalism but the Rwandan context, Journalists spearheaded segregations based on sectarianism and ethnicity. From 1961-1994, Journalists and media owners became political partisans. In light of the role of Media in Rwandan Genocide ,it important to question why did the Media play such substantial role in Rwandan Genocide. Lack of professionalism, partisanship, absence media legal regulatory body and economic factors have cited as the major causes that pushed Journalism in the Genocide drama Eleven years after the Genocide, Rwandan government has just liberalised Media waves . It has been reluctant to allow private radio stations fearing for another media of hatred. What mechanisms are in place to ensure that another propaganda media does not come back? What if the government hinders the freedom of the press citing the past Media history? Media landscape in Rwanda is progressively moving from a government monopoly to Private ownerships. About Six Private radio stations have emerged in one year. There are three fundamental functions of Media notably informing, educating and entertaining. For reasons still unknown, most of these newly created radio stations have dodged political affiliated programs. The refusal to include political programs by emerging private radios has been attributable to the legacy of hate media. Like others Rwandan sectors, Media industry is getting refined and organised compared to the past. An autonomous High Council of the Press was put in place mandated to sanction wildly behaving Media. Rwandan Journalists themselves put in places ideals and values (codes of ethics ) that will be guiding their profession . Press law is in place unlike where Newspapers, radio stations operated without laws governing them. The School of Journalism and Communication was created and mandated to train professional future Journalists INTERNNEWS a non-Governmental organisation has carried out various workshops on Ethics and press laws bringing together Journalists from both Private and State owned Media VIII : Comparative study of hate in Rwanda and the World In the recent years , Media has exacerbated tensions , political turmoil between countries as examples in Africa messages to exterminate Tutsis are on record examples of hate media in Rwanda included RTLM, La vois du patriotes , which transmitted from Kigoma and on shores of Lake Tanganyika . Other African countries which had hate media include DRC (radio Candip based in Bunya ) , South Africa ( Afrikanas radio stations in 1994) Burundi (Radio Rutomorangingo ,Radio democratie , La voix de Democratie , June 1994) . In USA: la reliance Nationale which preached White peoples’ supremacy , La Voz de Alpha 66 . In Europe: Denmark (Radio Oasen) Germany, and ex-Yugoslavia , Poland (radio Maria), Israel: extremist Radios against Palestine In light of all above examples from Europe , Asia and USA one can easily say that hate Media is not a Rwandan specificity nor an African phenomenon. IX: Media and Reconciliation There is a heated debate whether really Media should implicate itself in Peace , Unity and Reconciliation, tribunals extra. One version of the debate asks how can Media maintain neutrality and impartiality if it implicates itself in Unity and Reconciliation and advocacy for Peace? Another version says that Peace is a crosscutting issue , it is not a marketable commodity therefore it should wholly implicate itself in peace initiatives . One important issue to note however is that Media is one of the fundamental organ for ensuring control , accountability , checks and balance built . Also Media acts as the watchdogs of the society , voice for the voiceless and the fourth arm of government . If it acts as the watch dog of the society, the voice for the voiceless, the custodian of human rights , advocate for rule of law and condemn mob justice , how can it extricate from Peace initiatives? In countries where aristocracy, dictatorships have thrived Media have had little progress whereas in countries where democratization, rules of law have progressed , Media has had green lights for progress. According to Reports without Boarders Media Organisation countries still hampering the freedom of expression such as Liberia , Zimbabwe , Sudan , Rwanda are still faced with social and political instabilities. As a response , Media has a crucial role to play in ensuring social tolerance , co-existence, peace , Fair justice , democracy among others. Rwandan Media have a big challenge of fairly and responsibly reporting on Arusha Judicial Process and on Gacaca traditional Jurisdictions . It is in this respect that some radio stations have uniquely devoted their commitments towards realization of these positives values . Examples of such Media organisation in Rwanda include Radio Bonevolencija , Ibanga Newspaper /News For Peace , Ikinyamakuru Ku inkiko Gacaca(Gacaca NewsPaper) etc.

X : Media in relation to Great Lakes Political upheavals In the recent years , countries in great Lakes regions have been marked with political upheavals . These range from national political unrests to boarder conflicts. This has led to unsettled refugee problems, sexual violence against women such rape , sexual mutilation , tortures , arms trafficking , pillage of national resources, deliberate breach of international laws on respect of territorial integrity, child soldiers, massive violation of human rights extra Since Great Lakes region is ever entangled in what scholars of international relations call “Senseless Wars, Media should be part and parcel of regional Peace mechanisms put in place to address these perpetual conflicts. Unfortunately however, Journalists from these respective countries have sided with their countries for what they call patriotic reporting. As recommended by 12-16 December 2004 Bagamoyo (TANZANIA) conference, a regional Journalism committee should be formed to address issues relating to biased reporting.

To this end , University for Peace is looking forward to proving a tentative solution by launching a regional Masters program that bring together Media Practitioners for training specifically on ‘Media for Peace.’

XI - Recommendations As observed from this work, there is ample material to be researched on as a fact finding strategy on the role of Media in Rwanda Rwandan Genocide , the relationship of Media with bad leaderships in causing political instabilities . To achieve this, a specific Media and Genocide research Unit should be set as Center for Conflict Management branch. This unit could be supported by UPEACE and by other international institutions and would involve a team of younger researchers. XII- General Conclusion After observing that Media played a crucial role in Rwanda Genocide and other unfortunate massacres that marked the 20th century, it is important to integrate Media in peace initiatives. In fulfilment of its roles notably informing, education, entertaining, Peace needs to be integrated therein. After all wars are not started by touching on the trigger of the gun, “wars start in the minds of people” (UNESCO Constitution). It on this background, that Media has to sensitize for the culture of coexistence, tolerance and other positive human values. Last but not least, we are not aimed at tickling peoples’ minds but luring for those interested in making more research on this same subject . It is our pride to announce that there is extremely rich material for future researches: Historical archives, books , publications , articles , radio and Television programmes , movies ,etc . Moreover, human resources is now available. Butare, 30th May.2005

Assignment presented by

1. Mr. Athanase Karayenga

2. Mwumvaneza Willy Mugenzi